The Other Sister Research Group met on November 14^th, 2025, to discuss The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Medieval Women’s Writing in the Global Middle Ages, edited by Liz Herbert McAvoy, Michelle M. Sauer, and Diane Watt.

Joseph George Akl chaired the session, beginning by introducing the editors, Liz Herbert McAvoy, Michelle M. Sauer, and Diane Watt, and the authors of some of the encyclopedia’s entries on non-cloistered religious women: Michael Hahn, Tanya Stabler Miller, Laura Moncion, and Delfi Nieto-Isabel.

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Diane began by describing how the editors were approached by Palgrave about the project, which originally was pitched as an encyclopedia of women’s writing in medieval Britain or medieval England. She recounted the editors’ attempts to broaden the scope of the project to consider global perspectives, a process that led to the encyclopedia’s current form, which has been in an ongoing course of publication over the past three years. The editors are continuing to commission and accept suggestions for new entries.

Next, Liz discussed the challenges that the editors faced. The project has changed radically over time via discussion between the editors, with the inclusion of more associate editors, and with suggestions for entries sent independently over the past few years. New knowledge sets are constantly being included in the publication, massively expanding its subject area. Liz also noted that the encyclopedia does not claim to be comprehensive but should instead be perceived as a foundation for continued work.

Michelle discussed her own teaching experience and connected it to the development of the project: as a new professor, when asked to teach women’s writing, she had to write her own textbook because one didn’t exist, somewhat mirroring the purpose of the current publication. She emphasized the importance of global medieval studies and the “redefinition” of writing, broadening its domain to include book collecting and commissioning, libraries, and scribal houses to encompass the breadth of women included in these processes. She mentioned the first named author, Enheduanna, who was a Mesopotamian woman, emphasizing the historical, integral role of women in writing.

Michael began the discussion of specific entries with his contribution on Angela of Foligno, whose position as a non-cloistered woman he described as “central and pervasive” in respect to her life and the production and content of her texts as related to what it meant to be a Franciscan tertiary at the end of the thirteenth century. He suggested that Angela’s texts were collaborative productions, written together with her confessor and her wider circle of followers in “layered authorship,” connecting this perspective to research by Pablo Acosta-García, Racha Kirakosian, Carolyn Muessig, and Patricia Stroop on complex co-writing relationships, including layered, communal, and collaborative authorship. Although Angela’s male contemporaries are more readily categorized as theologians than she and other women, who are described as visionaries, spiritual writers, or mystics, are, Michael emphasized Angela’s important contributions to theology and explained that he purposefully constructed his entry to situate her within the theological conversations of her day, taking also into account a range of intellectual, pastoral, and devotional contexts. He also attended to the afterlives of her texts, important to better understand alternative theological voices. Several ecological, trauma-focused, and Black theological interpretations of Angela’s writings have appeared in recent years, for example. Michael concluded by providing examples of students’ interactions with the encyclopedia. Modelling it by being asked to write short, encyclopedia-style entries on a chosen medieval text strengthened students’ skills in conciseness and taught them to integrate complex information as academic writers.

Tanya, who wrote on Beguines, echoed Michelle and Michael’s sentiment that the encyclopedia has been helpful for teaching students about medieval women as well as appropriate for a general audience, with up-to-date bibliographies. She wrote her entry on Beguines with these points in mind and purposefully engaged with the Beguines’ roles in the production of vernacular literature. Tanya then mentioned the complications related to terms and categorizations of Beguines, a topic that has previously been discussed in the edited volume Labels and Libels: Naming Beguines in Northern Medieval Europe (Jennifer Kolpacoff Deane, Letha Böhringer, and Hildo van Engen, eds., Brepols, 2014). Tanya also provided insight into the usefulness of writing this article, as it enabled her to revisit the broader significance of the Beguines and synthesize much of the recent research on them.

The next speaker, Delfi, who wrote on “Heresies, Women, and Social Networks”, mentioned that she appreciated the opportunity to reference important scholars in the field in her entry and expressed how difficult it was for her to summarize her research into such a short text. She explained that her major emphases were women’s networks and women’s literacy, echoing Michelle’s comment on the expansion of the concept of medieval literacy, but she noted that women’s presence in texts often isn’t apparent at first glance. Delfi therefore had to expand her view of literacy, including multiple methods of interacting and impacting a text-based society. She suggested that texts were central to women’s lives, despite that they are underrepresented as authors of written works.

Laura then discussed one of her three entries in the encyclopedia, on Lady Gertrude Rickeldey, a non-cloistered, fourteenth-century noblewoman religious who lived in the Upper Rhine region, and her nontraditional hagiography. Laura raised the question of whether one of Gertrude’s female relatives, Heilke, another non-cloistered woman religious, wrote the text. This question is based on the presence of a single feminine pronoun in the Middle High German spiritual biography. Laura emphasized a few scenes in the text that highlighted vivid descriptions of self-defined, non-cloistered religious life for women that are not from an explicitly male perspective: Heilke’s re-preaching of a sermon she had heard to Gertrude, who was living in semi-reclusion, Heilke’s protection of Gertrude from outsiders, and Gertrude’s ongoing negotiation of humility and property ownership. The text’s translation by Anneke Mulder-Bakker, Gertrud Jaron Lewis, and Tilman Lewis is available digitally, but the manuscript itself is not. One of the major questions for future research might be: how can we know definitively that Heilke (or another woman) wrote this?

Next, Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski, who also contributed two entries to the encyclopedia (on Colette of Corbie and Perrine de Baume), reiterated the importance of the editors’ redefinition of what the term “author” encapsulates to include letter writers and other collaborative authors, roles which both Colette and Perrine fill. Renate referenced her recent collaborative article, “Les Vies de Colette de Corbie par Perrine de Baume et Pierre de Vaux. Propositions pour une nouvelle chronologie” (with Ludovic Viallet, Bernard Hodel, Anna Campbell, Sean Field, in Etudes franciscaines n.s. 18.1 (2025): 137-73), which reversed the idea that Perrine had re-copied Pierre de Vaux’s original biography of Colette, instead finding that Perrine’s text was the original and that Perrine and Pierre had collaborated. One of the benefits of the encyclopedia’s current format, Renate suggested, is the opportunity to frequently revise entries as research uncovers new information.

Michelle commented that the editors are considering and accepting entries for the second volume and encouraged researchers to contact any of the editors with suggestions (see below for their emails).

Joseph began the question period by asking the editors how they formulated their approach and how they decided what kinds of entries to include. Furthermore, how had they decided upon the definitions given in the introduction? Regarding challenges, Diane considered the periodization used, which, she acknowledged, is Eurocentric. Another issue was how to structure the entries; the editors decided upon alphabetical order by first name, given that, during most of the Middle Ages, surnames did not exist. Many decisions included significant compromise, necessary to overcome challenges. Diane explained that they wanted to include writing that was important for women, but also attempted to control the number of entries on texts by men.

Liz added that the current publication maintains significant potential for updates, meaning that the introduction can be revised. She also emphasized the encyclopedia’s ease of consultation for lay persons and students, which the editors purposefully prioritized.

Michelle briefly discussed the varied usages of the term “medieval,” acknowledging that the encyclopedia’s use of it might be anachronistic given differing periodizations in different areas. She then specified that practicality was a significant consideration since many academic courses run the full millennium.

Next, Isabelle Cochelin asked what the editors learned from their chosen global perspective. Liz answered that she learned about different approaches to a variety of topics and that studying women, their associates, and their networks often provided new perspectives. Some problems inherent in reading and comparing people from vastly different geographical and cultural backgrounds were uncovered, but Liz emphasized that there is often a sense of vernacularity and certain modes of expression that appear in parallel, making comparison possible.

The next question was from Sarah Carruthers, who asked the editors and contributors to expand on how they approach the “hidden” presence of women in sources. Delfi answered that she uses historical network analysis in inquisitorial records to determine the presence of women and bypass the fact that sources often prioritize the perspectives of male inquisitors. It is also important to look past quantitative data and observe qualitative connections of women with others. Thus, Delfi can consider the quality and depth of women’s social connections and the connections of their connections over how many times they are mentioned in the records. Laura, in contrast, explained that her approach to reading “traditional” texts is to consistently question their authorship. Laura emphasized that approaching texts with an open and inquisitive mind helps in this sense. In her primary research on women recluses in Alsace, she found that she was much more successful in finding women in the sources when specifically looking for them.

Laura asked how the editors have questioned or broadened the category of “women.” Michelle answered that they included transwomen, such as Eleanor Rykener, who lived as a seamstress, bartender, and sex worker in medieval England; Diane also added that the editors are still committed to maintaining and strengthening the encyclopedia’s geographical focus.

Gitta Windt commented that the mental shifts discussed by Delfi and Tanya will encourage the rethinking of literacy in its current framework, particularly as related to women in religious life. Gitta made the point that women were integral to both dissident and orthodox religious communities at a local level; whether or not they were “literate,” they were present in textual communities. She concluded by emphasizing how instructive the encyclopedia entries are.

In response to Gitta, Delfi suggested that dissident communities were structured to imitate non-dissident realities and that they existed in parallel, taking a critical perspective on the current narrative that women were not generally present within these communities, despite their significant impact on community connections. She also suggested that smaller, dissident communities may have provided women with better access, but that opportunities often decreased when these communities expanded, causing women to fade into the historical background.

Diane asked those who have access to the encyclopedia whether the entries might change the way that they teach or do research. Kirsten Schutt answered that the encyclopedia is an excellent source from which to mine sources for classroom use. Delfi responded that one of her new courses on heresy will find good use of the encyclopedia. Short entries are an appropriate format for teaching undergrads, especially with the current state of undergraduate learning, wherein many students struggle with attention span. Laura liked Michael’s idea of having students base assignments on the entries, and she mentioned that writing for large groups of scholars and for the general public has been an important step in her academic writing process. She also agreed with Tanya’s earlier statement that providing students with encyclopedia articles for background reading might save time during class.

Michael added that his students appear to have benefited greatly from the encyclopedia-centred assignment. He also mentioned that “zooming out” from a topic often helps to present new perspectives on one’s original interpretations and conclusions. Joseph mentioned that short entries are important for undergrads who are not specialized in history or do not have certain historical contextual information.

Michael discussed his assignment in greater detail, encouraging others to use this format, which he believes is essential in helping students present information in a concise way and become aware of a variety of academic outputs.

Isabelle asked if anyone had ideas about women that might be added in the future. Laura suggested considering archival deposits and charters, and Rebecca Pawloski suggested Frata Jacopa de’ Settesoli, Francesca Romana, and Paula of Rome. Diane responded to Laura’s comment on legal documentation, agreeing that the editors have been trying to broaden their concept of written sources, mentioning the example of musical notation.

Anne Ibos-Augé asked if women composers are included. Diane answered that they are, but the editors would like to consider additional examples. Anne pointed out that the question of anonymous authors can be complex. Diane responded that they include all cases with strong arguments for a woman’s authorship, even if no scholarly consensus has yet been reached.

Greti Dinvoka-Bruun asked if women writing poetry are included. Michelle answered that they are. Greti specified that women writing biblical poetry and versifications are often considered minor figures, but that they are important to the genre.

Brenna Duperron asked if women’s roles in pre-colonial Indigenous (Turtle Island) oral history traditions might be included in the encyclopedia. Michelle said that the editors are still looking for someone to address this question and that they are hoping to include it in the second printed volume. Certain entries on broader topics might be quite large, up to 5000 words.

Diane added that the editors have included women who were known to have written but whose writing has not survived. Bruce Venarde asked her to expand on this question: how is it decided which women to include? Is this decision based primarily on biographical information or existing texts? Diane answered that biography and evidence are both considered, providing a few examples, including Muriel of Wilton, who was a famous poet in the context of Wilton Abbey, and Elizabeth Barton of Kent, whose writings were seized but some of their contents recorded in the trial records for her execution.

Delfi asked (on behalf of Lorena Garri-Catchot) whether there is an entry about the complexity of issues inherent to the study of medieval women’s authorship. Diane answered no, but that that would be a great addition to the encyclopedia.

The editors have provided their emails for those interested in getting in touch about ideas for new entries. Please remove the space before the @ symbol in each of the emails provided, should you write to them:

d.watt @surrey.ac.uk

michelle.m.sauer @und.edu

e.mcavoy @swansea.ac.uk

by Julia Cole

On Friday, October 18, 2024, The Other Sister Research Group had a thematic meeting on the topic of Irish women religious.

Our invited scholars and readings were:

• Colmán Ó Clabaigh OSB, “Marginal Figures? Quasi-Religious Women in Medieval Ireland,” in Brides of Christ: Women and Monasticism in Medieval and Early Modern Ireland M. Browne, T. Collins, C. Ó Clabaigh, & B. A. McShane (Four Courts Press, 2023), pp. 118-135.
• Bronagh Ann McShane, “Who Were the Nuns in Early Modern Ireland,” in Brides of Christ: Women and Monasticism in Medieval and Early Modern Ireland ed. M. Browne, T. Collins, C. Ó Clabaigh, & B. A. McShane (Four Courts Press, 2023), pp. 148-170.
• Victoria Anne Pearson, “Deeds, Not Words: Reconciling Enclosure with a Missionary Ethos in Eighteenth Century Ireland”, in Bishop Francis Moylan, A Merchant Prince of the Catholic Church, 1735-1815, PhD thesis, Ulster University, 2024, chapter 4.
• For background, we also circulated Tracy Collins and Bronagh McShane, “Introduction,” to Brides of Christ: Women and Monasticism in Medieval and Early Modern Ireland M. Browne, T. Collins, C. Ó Clabaigh, & B. A. McShane (Four Courts Press, 2023), pp. 1-6.

Alison More started the meeting by reminding attendees of the ongoing mission of The Other Sister, to uncover the stories of women religious. In this meeting, the group heard about and discussed Irish women religious, a group which has been largely ignored by the scholarship.

The first presentation was from Colmán Ó Clabaigh, who was one of the editors of the volume from which two of the papers presented came, Brides of Christ: Women and Monasticism in Medieval and Early Modern Ireland. Bronagh Anne McShane, one of the other presenters, and Tracy Collins, an attendee of the session, were also editors of the volume. The fourth editor of the volume was Martin Browne.

Colmán began by expressing his gratitude at seeing so many of the scholars whose work he had used to inform his own. First, he explained the volume and then presented the chapter he authored. The fifth Glenstal history conference was the starting point of the volume. The area that these conferences focus on is Irish material and history overall. Female monasticism was a long-hoped for topic for Colmán, and this was realized in 2021, supported by the work of Bronagh Ann McShane and Tracy Collins. The volume that arose from this conference was a long-awaited work on female monasticism in Ireland, a field that has been under-studied so far.

“Marginal figures? Quasi-religious women in medieval Ireland” was the title of Colmán’s chapter, a fitting topic for The Other Sister. The image gracing the cover of the book, a fifteenth-century depiction of the Virgin Mary sheltering a group of possibly Franciscan nuns under her mantle, shows (upon close examination) that diverse groups of women (and men) religious are represented. He began with a discussion of the difficulty of terminology, such as pallium, which is an early Latin borrow word in the Irish language, a word used for many meanings, from a widow leading a penitent life to a witch.

He then discussed four categories: vowesses, virgins and widows; anchoresses and recluses; tertiaries (mainly of the Franciscan tradition); and finally nursing sisters in Ireland. It is challenging to overstate the fragmentary nature of the sources in Ireland; there is no material comparable to that, for example, of female monasticism in England. Therefore, he explained, much of the scholarly process to bring the stories of these women to light is wondering if one has enough source material to do so.

The second presentation was by Bronagh Anne McShane (Trinity College, Dublin), president of the steering committee of the “History of Women Religious of Britain and Ireland”, whose research is involved in exploring the voices of early modern women religious in Ireland and Europe. Bronagh agreed with Colmán on the fragmentary nature of the sources for this topic, comparing her work to weaving a tapestry together to paint a picture of the women found in the sources.

She then discussed the idea of enclosure regarding early modern women religious in Ireland. She specifically highlighted how contested and varied this phenomenon was across the period and between different institutions, as well as how it operated, compared to how it was prescribed to operate. For most nuns in Ireland, it was impossible to observe strict enclosure, not for lack of zeal but due to the ongoing conflicts, upheavals, and wars in Ireland. Further, the imposition of penalties against the practice of Catholicism in Ireland meant that many nuns had to leave for the continent. Bronagh was struck by how mobile early modern nuns were, especially at a time when travel could be challenging. She spoke about a specific group of Irish Poor Clares, who, upon their return to Ireland in 1629 with the intent of establishing a foundation in Dublin, were expelled from the city, and later emerged in a rural area, which foundation did not last long. Bronagh also pointed out that the term enclosure is being thought about and contested by modern communities, especially in the context of the digital age which enables unprecedented access ‘to the world’.  Finally, Bronagh highlighted that the live and experiences of tertiary sisters remain a poorly understood dimension of Irish history. She highlighted how Colmán’s work has been essential to our understanding of the function and operation of tertiary communities medieval Ireland. But as yet we know very little about third order sisters in the modern era. She concluded by raising a call to arms to find out more about third order secular, and religious female foundations in Ireland and the wider European context.

Next Victoria Pearson, financial officer of the “History of Women Religious of Britain and Ireland” group, PhD Researcher at Ulster University, and scholar of the life and work of Dr. Francis Moylan, Bishop of Kerry, spoke. She explained her work as the study of a bishop and by extension the examination of institutional impacts on women religious. She is interested in how Tridentine Catholicism was applied to the Irish context and how it emerged in Ireland in the late eighteenth century to revitalize Catholic life. She again echoed the challenges of the fragmentary sources which survived into the period of increased Catholic acceptance in the eighteenth century. This context of reform is vital to her exploration of the relationship between Francis Moylan and ‘Nano’ Nagle, which includes the idea that there was a change in both the leadership of the Irish Catholic Church and stewardship of the Catholic Nation. Their relationship is especially interesting considering that Nagle was from an old Irish Gaelic aristocratic family and Francis represented a new group. This new group was Catholics who had eked out an existence for themselves under the restrictive laws, by pursuing businesses and using their capital to grow their communities. This shift highlights the emerging middle class. There was a change in ownership, values, and ideas about respectability. Nagle never believed that enclosure would work in Ireland, and she had always envisioned that enclosure would not be part of her community. Moylan came around to her way of thinking when he returned home to Ireland, seeing the schools in Cork that Nagle had formed, and attempted to get her community under the protection of the Catholic Church. Nagle herself did not take vows until she was in her fifties, likely because of her desire to work in the community. Moylan knew of communities in France who did this and tried to find a way to apply this knowledge in the Irish context. This creates an intriguing story, in which the bishop argued with his superiors and authorities in Rome that Nagle’s community should not be enclosed. This issue dragged on for the congregation, but after Nagle’s death, the community decided they were willing to accept enclosure in the early 1800s. By this point, many changes had occurred in Ireland, both culturally, politically, and in terms of the workings of the congregation.

Next, the group turned to the discussion period. Michael Hahn led the discussion, beginning with a question posed by Eleonora Cappuccilli. She asked Bronagh about her definition concerning transnational religious experiences, considering the mission of the “counter-reformation” to recover territories lost to the faith, and the work of missionaries. She wondered about how scholars are defining the transnational experiences of women, and if shared models can be applied in these cases. She asked: how can the nation be defined not in ethnic terms, but in religious terms? She also discussed Teresa of Avila and her influence in this period, wondering if there is evidence of her influence in Ireland. Bronagh began her response by connecting both transnational and local sites and emphasizing the importance of understanding these in conjunction. She highlighted the Tridentine context on one hand, and the local Irish context on the other. In her work, there is a complex context in Ireland in which Catholicism is suppressed by the state, but “counter-reformation” ideas are being explored. Exile as an aspect of religious identity for Irish women religious is also important to consider, as being exiled from Ireland and going to religious houses on the continent informed women’s experiences. This brings up interesting tensions between women of different nationalities within these houses on the continent. She also discussed the ethnic vs. religious question, giving the example in Ireland in this period that saw the coming together of ethnic groups such as Gaelic and Old English groups. Finally, she agreed that Teresa of Avila had significant influences on Irish nuns and concepts of ecstasy, on which some work has been done in Ireland. Victoria Pearson also elaborated that Nagle was known to engage in long hours kneeling in prayer, and aspects of bodily mortification, and taking up the cloak of a beggar to collect money for her community, even before she took any vows.

Next, Isabelle Cochelin asked about an example of a pregnant tertiary, and Colmán’s discussion of tertiaries who were married. She wondered how common this was in Ireland? She also asked about the proportion of male to female religious communities. Colman answered that these women were secular tertiaries, and marriage and child-rearing was allowed under the secular tertiary rule. They were further not expected to follow the same fasting regulations as the others. Bronagh elaborated further by highlighting the need to clarify the third order and regular vs. secular tertiaries in the scholarship. She explained that male communities survived both exile and ongoing conflict in higher numbers than female houses, not to mention the head start those men had due to the establishment of seminary training houses. Victoria Pearson also highlighted the fact that scholars are only starting to understand how much was lost from female houses when the exile happened. She also stated that considerations which acknowledge tertiary lifestyles are allowing scholars to reconsider how secular women led lives of community service which can be seen as forms of religious life. Exile and return were part of the tradition of St Patrick and the great saints, and this means Nagle was following this same tradition.

Next, Devon Sherwood asked a general question about the fragmentary nature of the sources in both the medieval and early modern period, and if there is any difference in the nature of the sources in these times. She wondered what types of sources are still available. She also asked about religious self-identity of women religious and the phases of religious life these women may pass through; further, how the acceptance of enclosure could change the self-perception of these women. Victoria Pearson answered that Nagle’s successor, Sister Angela Collins, was in a liminal space for much of her life, living as a religious woman in a community. However, she did not take solemn vows nor was she officially recognized by the community until later in life. The sources, she states, are fragmentary, but sometimes sources remain unknown and therefore research is needed. This is especially true of the sources which are stored in other places, or sources which were brought back and forth to the continent, which may not be known yet. Colmán discussed the medieval sources, sharing that it is sometimes necessary to interrogate what sources are available and in what new ways known sources can be used to highlight female monasticism and religious activity. He also says that many have not interrogated the vernacular sources, which are vital to understanding and exploring the topic.  Finally, on identity, he said that there is evidence of groups redefining themselves between their exile and subsequent movement, especially many communities oscillated between Augustinian, Cistercian, and Benedictine identities.

In the meantime, Sioban Nelson asked how much influence there was from the Vincentian movement, in which humble women cared for the sick and the poor. Bronagh answered that the Vincentians did not come to Ireland, but that there were examples of women living out a form of religious expression that was not defined by claustration, between the closure of the monasteries and the official dissolution of religious life. At the end to these restrictions, there were groups which emerged to provide community services and observed some form of religious community life but were not restricted in the sense of enclosure. This, of course, upset many Jesuits, who had worries about the close working relationship between these women and the missionaries charged with their care. Especially the Tridentine clergy posed questions about these groups.

Margot Fassler recommended some sources on liturgical life. She highlighted the need to give the sources which do exist more attention, and especially to organize and present them clearly. Bronagh agreed, sharing works which catalogue the collections and will be instrumental in future research. Colman added an exciting upcoming edition of the anchoritic Rule of Godwin of Salisbury which will be released soon and will add to the corpus of available works. We will update this post with a reference to this new edition as soon as possible.

Alison More wrapped up the meeting with thanks to the speakers and those who attended, noting the fruitful session even amidst internet service interruptions due to inclement weather in Ireland.

by Emma Gabe and Laura Moncion

On 19 November 2021, The Other Sister group hosted a research seminar on the topic of vowesses. These non-cloistered women religious were usually widows who took a vow to remain chaste perpetually while living in the world. This session was organized by Isabelle Cochelin and Alison More.

The three speakers at this session, and their pre-circulated papers, were:

• Michelle M. Sauer, “The Meaning of Russet: A Note on Vowesses and Clothing,” Early Middle English 2.2 (2020): 91-97.

• Katherine Clark Walter, The Profession of Widowhood: Widows, Pastoral Care and Medieval Models of Holiness (CUA Press, 2018), more specifically her chapter on canon law.

• Laura M. Wood (now Richmond), “In Search of the Mantle and Ring: Prosopographical Study of the Vowess in Late Medieval England,” Medieval Prosopography, 34 (2019): 175-205.

Laura M. Richmond addressed the interesting problem of vowesses breaking their vows, typically because of they had since married, which called their religious vows into question. As breaking vows was a serious matter, they adopted strategies in their petitions such as claiming that they had taken the vow of chastity due to grief or pressure to remarry. Katherine Clark Walter discussed the differences between available sources in Great Britain and mainland Europe, and a few notable examples of vowesses, including St Elizabeth of Thuringia and Yvette (also known as Juette/Iuetta) of Huy. She noted that liturgical texts differentiated between virgin and widowed nuns, and addressed the consecration of widows. She also observed that tertiaries seem to take the place of vowesses in mainland Europe. Michelle M. Sauer presented vowesses as one of several groups of religious women who can be considered “anchorite adjacent”, similar to recluses or anchorites in their paradoxical retreat from and engagement in the world. She also addressed how vowesses’ clothing became a visible symbol of their “renewed purity”.

The discussion afterwards touched on issues of source material by region, particularly the usefulness of bishops’ registers in Britain, and a certain lack of clear evidence for a person called the “vowess” in some other regions, such as Cologne. The conversation addressed whether or not the vowess was a distinctly English form of life. The concept of women’s “self-fashioning” was also discussed in relation to vowesses, women late in life and with relative power over their lifestyles. The clothes that they wore––or did not wear––were an important element of this “self-fashioning.” In choosing to live as vowesses, women in medieval Europe could create a space for themselves in religious life, but the expression of this religious life and how these women fit into their social surroundings depended also on local practices and customs.